The John Marshall Ju/'hoan Bushman Film and Video Collection spans 1950-2000; during this time Ju/'hoansi's lives were transformed by significant changes in Nyae Nyae, in Namibia, and in the world at large. Of course, Ju/'hoan history stretches back much farther than 1950 and has been influenced by innumerable forces and events. Life in Nyae Nyae has also changed since John Marshall's last video shoot in 2000.
The following timeline marks some events that affected or were affected by the Ju/'hoansi of Nyae Nyae during the 20th century and provides some context for John Marshall's documentary record.
Date
Event
1884-1915
German Colonial Period
The territory then known as Deutsch Sudwestafrika (German Southwest Africa) is under German Colonial rule. Ethnic groups including San (Bushmen), Herero, and Nama suffer forced labor and genocide.
1915
Beginning of South African Rule
South African troops invade South West Africa at request of British government; Germany surrenders the territory, which comes under the protection of Great Britian.
1919
League of Nations mandate
South West Africa placed under League of Nations mandate to be administered by South Africa.
Vagrancy Proclamation and Stock-Theft Proclamation allow for widespread arrests of Bushmen, followed by sentences of hard labor on white-owned farms. (Gordon 1992, "The Bushman Myth" p102-103)
1932
John Marshall born in United States
John and his elder sister, Elizabeth, are the children of Lorna, a graduate of Radcliffe, and Laurence, the founding president of the Raytheon Corporation.
1945
End of WWII, United Nations established
South Africa does not recognize the United Nations as the successor to the League of Nations and refuses to hand over the mandate for South West Africa to UN trusteeship in 1946
The Marshall family embarks on the first of seven expeditions sponsored by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University and the Smithsonian Institution. Lorna Marshall begins her ethnographic studies of Ju/'hoansi at /Gautcha.
1955
"Blackbirding"
Several Ju/'hoan families are "blackbirded" (abducted for labor) and taken to farms south of Nyae Nyae. ≠Oma and his family escape the following year. The Marshalls assist in the release of the other Ju/'hoansi in 1957.
John Marshall's first film,
The Hunters, is released to wide acclaim.
1958
John Marshall leaves Nyae Nyae
The South West African government declines to renew John Marshall's visa after it expires. He is denied entry to the country for twenty years.
1959
Tsumkwe administrative post established
Claude McIntyre, first Bushman Affairs Commissioner, establishes administrative post at Tsumke in Nyae Nyae. McIntyre invites ≠Oma to work with him; the /Gautcha band moves to Tsumkwe in 1960 and begins some agricultural work.
1960
South West Africa People's Organization
South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) is formed to advocate independence from South Africa.
South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) begins armed struggle for independence against South Africa.
1976
Bushmanland established as homeland
Under South West Africa's ethnic homeland policy, Bushmanland is declared as the homeland for all Bushman peoples. Ju/'hoansi lose approximately 70% of their traditional territory.
1978
Army begins recruiting Ju/'hoansi
Bushman Battalion 36 of the South African Defence Force (SADF) is established at Tsumke. Ju/'hoansi are recruited to fight against SWAPO.
1978
Marshall returns to Nyae Nyae
Marshall is finally granted a permit to visit Nyae Nyae. He shoots footage for N!ai, The Story of a !Kung Woman, which shows the destitution of Ju/'hoan life in Tsumkwe.
Comedic feature film The Gods Must Be Crazy, by South African director Jamie Uys, is released. The film stars Ju/'hoan actor /Gao Kanna.
1982
Ju/'hoansi establish farms
Several Ju/'hoan families leave Tsumkwe, returning to their traditional lands (n!ores) and establishing subsistence farms there. Marshall and Claire Ritchie establish The Cattle Fund (later the Nyae Nyae Development Foundation) to assist Ju/'hoansi.
1983
Film deposited at HSFA
John Marshall deposits the 16mm film he shot from 1950-1958 and in 1978 at the Human Studies Film Archives, Smithsonian Institution so that it can be used for research.
1984
Game reserve proposed
South West African government supports creation of a game reserve in Bushmanland, which would dispossess Ju/'hoansi of all their land. Marshall and Ritchie launch a media campaign opposing the plan.
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1986
Ju/'hoansi establish the Ju/'hoan Bushman Farmers' Union, later known as the Nyae Nyae Farmer's Cooperative (NNFC)
South West African government begins to allow big game trophy hunting in Bushmanland; license fees are paid to the government.
1989
First democratic elections in Namibia
United Nations Task Force Group (UNTAG) oversees first democratic elections for Republic of Namibia; Ju/'hoansi vote in Nyae Nyae.
1990-1992
Influx of foreign aid follows Namibian independence and abolition of apartheid laws
Many foreign donors and aid agencies would not fund projects due to apartheid laws in South West Africa. After independence, large amounts of money were given to development organizations in Namibia, including the NNDFN.
1991
Namibian Lands Conference
Ju/'hoan rights to control their land in what remains of Nyae Nyae are recognized at the Namibian Lands Conference. 35 Ju/'hoan farming communities exist by the end of the year. Click on image to view larger version of map.
Across southern Africa, San groups - including the Ju/'hoansi of Nyae Nyae - become more politically active, lobbying for their rights to land, education, and self-determination. Many groups of San come together for the First Regional Conference on Development Programs for Africa's San Populations in 1992. Ju/hoansi advocate for themselves on a national level at the 1991 Namibian Lands Conference (see video).
Ju/'hoansi vote to establish a Conservancy in Nyae Nyae; the Conservancy model will give them communal control of and financial benefit from wildlife management and tourism.
1998
Traditional Authorities Act
Namibian Traditional Authorities Act recognizes Traditional chiefs, including Tsamko "Bobo" ≠Oma of Nyae Nyae
2001
A Kalahari Family
John Marshall's 6-hour series, A Kalahari Family is released. The series incorporates footage shot from 1950-2000.
2001
Kxao Royale /O/oo elected to Parliament
Kxao Royale /O/oo is the first Ju/'hoan elected to the Namibian Parliament
2003
National Film Registry
The Hunters is added to the National Film Registry
This timeline has been prepared as a starting point for research. Information about John Marshall and the John Marshall Ju/'hoan Bushman Collection is based on the collection itself and the authors' first-hand knowledge of certain events. References for some events have been noted above; the News and Events section of this website contains additional resources for further research.
