3. Significant Events of the 1970s

a. Missionary Family Contribution

(1) Fair backland price exchanges; community development

(2) Current practices and ultimate purposes

b. Manuscript Writing: develops ability to analyze

(1) Tep-hot learned outsider analysis translating manuscripts

(2) Apanyekra contrast; little reading and writing; fieldwork hard

c. Visits of Other Anthropologists: Azanha, Ladeira, Layrisse, Mehringer, Ritter

d. Education of Kaprêêprêk: helps tribe understand city life

e. Official Policy of Conscientização

f. Demarcation of Lands: Operação Timbira’s student lawyers

(1) Press coverage as a contributing factor; lands increased

(2)  Apanyekra airfield helped protect lands; road completed late

g. Radio Transmitter at Village Post: saves lives; new hopes

h. Changes in Transportation Routes: enable changes in outlook

i. Public Health and Population Growth

j. Agricultural Problems: backland cattle break fences, eat produce

(1) Need to sharecrop near backlander farms

(2) Tractor’s presence makes walking to Barra do Corda an indignity for some

(3) Cattle Raising: possible by leaving cattle in Indian service’s herd

(4) Western Abraçado Dancing: popular but not replacing sing-dancing

4.Barra do Corda Influence on the Canela, 1950s-1970s

a. Geography and Demography of Barra do Corda

b. Settlement: the last river port before crossing to the Tocantins

c. Agriculture of Barra do Corda: rice, beans, manioc; cattle, pigs, chickens

d. Institutions of the City: businesses, industries, banks, churches

e. Communications with Urban Brazil: transportation (boat, air, road) and communications (telephones, television)

f. Regional Agricultural Development: migration into Amazonia

g. Industrial Zone: near the Canela access road to Barra do Corda

h. Education

i. Medicine and Sanitation

j. Construction: buildings, electrical generators, bridges

k. Modernization and Attitudinal Changes

(1) Influences from the Northeast and Brasília

(2) Culture and recreation

(3) Cultural contrasts; Barra do Corda more like USA than backland culture

C. Annual Cycles: climatic, environmental, economic, ceremonial

1. Climatic Cycle: influences from three biomes

a. Region of Climatic Shift

b. Canela Annual Climatic Cycle: rain, humidity, temperature, win

2. Environmental Cycle: traditional monthly markers

3. Economic Cycle: starts in June; more backlander than aboriginal

a. Clearing Fields

b. Burning and Fencing

c. Planting and Weeding

d. Division of Labor

e. Crops, Fruits, Domesticated Animals, Hunting, and Fishing

f. Traditional Artifacts for Sale

g. Summary

4. Ceremonial Cycle: intermeshed with the other three annual cycles

a. Regeneration Season (Më-ipimràk): Red versus Black moiety log racing

b. Unnamed Ceremonial Season: Sweet Potato, Corn, Pàlrà rituals

c. Wè?tè Season: festivals; age-set moiety racing; sanctioned extramarital sex

D. Life Cycles: roles and behaviors

1. Birth and Childhood

a. Parental Roles: supportive and permissive

b. Roles of Aunts and Uncles: naming, advising, joking

(1) Naming practices; naming-aunts’ and naming-uncles’ ceremonial roles

(2) Role of the advising-”uncle”; parallels naming-uncle’s role

(3) Joking aunts and uncles; the joy of life, especially when cross-sex

c. Children’s Activities: girls at kin’s side; boys play in the cerrado

2. Life Cycle of Women

a. Loss of Virginity: constitutes marriage and social puberty

b. Menstruation: caused by first sex; requires first restrictions

c. Postpubertal Restrictions: to gain strength and maturity

d. Privacy for Adolescent Girls: 2-meter high beds for sex

e. Being a Girl Associate: high point of adolescent’s life

(1) Positions of high honor for life; statuses contrasted

(2) Winning their belts; symbol of relative maturity

(3) Giving through extramarital sex; joy to the group

f. Winning Objects of Ceremonial Honor: status remembered for life

(1) Seclusion after winning belts; to learn restrictions, to gain kin’s support

(2) Belts painted red by female in-laws as acceptance

g. Women’s “Free” Years: “adolescence”; married but very available

h. Attaining Womanly Maturity: pregnancy, childbirth, motherhood

(1) Securing her social husband through pregnancy

(a) Choosing contributing-fathers for child’s traits and life-long support

(b) Avoiding activities or items affecting the fetus; backland influences

(2) Childbirth; exigencies of childcare

(3) Motherhood; reinforced by teknonymy and advising kin

i. Women’s Roles: mother and household maintainer first, wife second

(1) Work primarily in house and harvesting

(2) Food collection; formerly primary, currently minor

(3) Social activities limited and child-oriented

(4) Sharing judicial and ceremonial authority with brothers

(5) Female head of household; a position requiring leadership

(6) Status of permanently single women; respected; fewer because of acculturation

j. Status of the Elderly Woman

(1) Loss of authority to daughter who takes over household

(2) Agricultural retirement pensions contribute to household support

3. Life Cycle of Men

a. Induction into Age-Set: Khêêtúwayê festival; kin ward off ghosts

b. Ear-piercing Rite: seclusion for better listening, understanding, obeying

c. Loss of Virginity: discipline transfers from parents to uncles

(1) Internment to learn the character-building practice of restrictions

(2) Ordered to live in the plaza but not to touch the free women there

(3) Disciplined before line of women; uncles’ enforcement of authority

d. Internment in the Pepyê festival: youths enculturated by tribal agents; build group solidarity, and individual growth

e. Winning Honor Awards from Pró-khãmmã: to motivate proper behavior

f. The Nkrekre-re Period: individual and age-set activities

g. Couvade: the shock that binds; subject to his in-laws command

h. Status of Fatherhood and Sons-in-Law: full maturity; family’s economic support

(1) Sons-in-law; their current rise in relative power and importance in agriculture

(2) Succession to household leadership; son- to father-in-law

i. Adult Male Activities and Roles

(1) Going on Trek: returning with urban equipment proves ability

(2) Ceremonial Roles: prestige of some roles carries over into daily life

(a) Dance masters learn to lead in festival roles and in daily dancing

(b) Ceremonial chiefs (më-hõõpa?hi) of each age-set

(3) Political Roles: start with leadership roles in initiation festivals

(4) Town Crier: sings out results of council meeting to whole village

(5) Shamans: ghosts may give powers to the sick and youths in seclusion

(6) Hunters: traditionally more prestigious than farmers

(7) Farmer and Hunter Compared: closer to hunting than farming psychology

j. Middle Age: formerly respected for their endurance shown in survival

k. Council of Elders: gratifying for all older men

l. Old Age: life continues similarly, but individuals weaken

E. Daily Cycle

1. Definitions of Individual Activities

a. Occurrence of Daily and Festival Activities: occur concurrently or sequentially

b. Non-daily Cycle Activities: festival, life cycle, idiosyncratic, ceremonial

2. Time Orientations: Canela concepts of “today” and sequence of “todays”

3. Evening Activities: day begins at sunset, coming early morning dance is “today’s”

a. Twilight: male conviviality; council meeting; cheer for moon

b. Evening Sing-Dance: fun for young women and men; foreign dances

c. Troubadours: rare serenading of the village by the young

4. Midnight and Early Morning Activities: dividing point of night’s “today”

a. Early Morning Sing-Dance: time of great joy for the young

(1) Calling out the women

(2) Youths’ role; women fixed in single line, while male patterns vary

(3) Climax: most frenzied time for the restrained Canela

b. Bathing: twice a day, formerly in mixed groups, but certain avoidances

5. Morning Activities: time for work

a. Age-Set Meetings

b. Morning Council Meeting

c. Track Events: mild male competitiveness; various foot races

d. Men Visit Female Kin: where they are authorities as mothers’ brothers

e. Off to Work: to farms, group work sites, or tasks in village

f. Women for Male Work Groups: changing mores

g. Quality of Work: slow but full of care; almost all acts made into play

6. Mid-Day and Afternoon Activities: return to pleasure; rest, sex, athletics

a. Siesta: for relaxation after work and before racing

b. Log Race: the intertribal pan-Gê sport

7.  Late Afternoon Activities: ceremonial sing-dance; council meeting

a. Afternoon Dance in Plaza: the great sing-dance ceremonial

b. Key Authority-Maintenance Ceremony: uncles discipline nephews

c. High Ceremony for Hàmren People: meat pies presented to Pró-khãmmã

8. Early Evening Council Meeting and Boulevard Sing-Dancing: factors in high social cohesion

9. Canela Day Seen Ethnostructurally: similar to two festival structures

10.Observations: sufficient flexibility, satisfactions, communication

F. “Recreation:” music, sports, games, body painting; frustration outlets

1. Music: principally vocal and choral with gourd and belt rattles

a. Rattles: precise percussion instruments; maraca; sing-dance master

(1) Formal instruction by maraca master in Pepyê festival encampment

(2) Maraca masters’ techniques, procedures, rhythms

(3) Belt rattle of tapir hoof tips dropped on mat or shook from knee

b.  Secular Sing-Dancing: descriptive terms

(1) Individual vocal traits (Canela, backlander); learning; performing on city radio

(2) Group styles and formations; variety, harmony, scales, tones

(a) Daily sing-dances in plaza; three dance periods; song repertoire; songs of other tribes

(b) Troubadours around boulevard; small group of youths serenade houses

(c) Më Aykhë around boulevard; age-sets facing houses; for special occasions

(d) Evening boulevard age-set files with maraca leader

c. Ceremonial Sing-Dancing: styles and formations in festivals

(1) Khêêtúwayê festival dancing; two facing rows turn to march in files

(2) Singing in circle, facing in, expanding and contracting the circle

(3) Më hakrel; files move parallel but in opposite directions; similar to prayer

(4) Great buriti log race squared style; “splitting” the plaza, running

(5) Individual sing-dancing around boulevard before each house

d. Foreign Songs: learned Pukobyé songs in 1960, and still singing them

2. Sports: adapted to long distance, unhampered, open cerrado running

a. Log Racing: competing moiety dichotomies; Apanyekra imbalance

(1) Procedures and practices; challenges to balance past defeats

(a) Cleared wide roads for two teams to run parallel unhindered by brush

(b) Log cutting and selection; buriti and Pàlrà styles

(c) Shapes, textures, decorations; final log preparation, weight testing

(d) Lifting to shoulder; learning to bear great weight; level running style

(e) Transfer to follower; choice of following reliable runners

(f) Objectives are to enter village first; individuals pass opponents

(2) In festivals, special songs, challenging team’s lead, participants

(3) In village, winning matters little; re-challenge races; Wè?tès’ role

b. Track Events: sprinting, long distance endurance, relay races

c. Projectile Games: all tests of skill but great fun

(1) Arrow bouncing, deflecting off board to out-fly other age-set’s arrow

(2) Padded hand-thrown lances; uncle-nephew dodging practice

(3) Padded arrows; lance and bonnet winner dodges other age-set’s arrows

(4) Arrow dance; women shoot at non-relatives who dodge the arrows

d. Soccer: Noncompetitiveness vs appropriate aggressiveness

(1) Popular Indian service personnel was the key to learning new values

(2) Respect gained in the backlands through fielding an effective team

3. Children’s Games and Toys: chance not important factor in games or sports

a. Individual Games and Toys: made by parents, not by aunts or uncles

b. Group Games and Toys: doll houses, backland competitions

4. Adult Formal Friendship Dramas

5. Body “Painting”: reveals status, conditions, states, relationships

a. Falcon Down: used only in specific ceremonial high status situations

b. Urucu: expresses familial care and health

c. Charcoal and White Latex Paint: implies joking and extramarital sex

d. Black Charcoal: indicates the wearer is undergoing food and sex restrictions

e. Rare “Paints”: genipap, yellow urucu root, white chalk, pati fuzz

6. Generalizations: log racing and body “painting”; soccer, visual arts vis-à-vis musical arts

G. Artifacts

1. The Visual Arts: relatively unemphasized

2. Commercial Products: lesser quality, more elaborate painting

3. Traditional Artifacts

a. Honor Awards: bestowed on individuals for good behavior

(1) Feather Bonnet (hàkyara) (Table 8, item 2; Plate 56e)

(2) Ceremonial Lance (khrúwa-tswa) (Table 8, item 1; Plates 56e, 63c,d)

(3) Belt with Pendants All Around (tsù) (Table 8, item 3; Plate 60c,d)

(4) Belt with Pendants Only in Front (tsêp) (Table 8, item 4)

(5) Belt of Cords with Bead Pendants Behind (akàà) (Table 8, item 5; Plates 57c, 59h)

(6) Dorsal Neck Pendant, with Bead Pendants and Small Gourd Bowl (krat-re) (Table 8, item 6; Plate 59f)

(7) Dorsal Neck Pendant, with Wooden Comb and Bead Pendants (khoykhe-re) (Table 8, item 7; Plate 59b,g)

(8) Shoulder to Waist Diagonal Sash with Two Tassels (hahï) (Table 8, item 8; Plate 56)

b. Festival Items: made for and mostly worn during certain festivals

(1) Headband of Vertical Macaw Feathers (pàn-yapùù) (Table 8, item 24; Plate 61a)

(2) Body Scratching Stick (Table 8, item 25; Plate 67c)

(3) Child’s Dorsal Head-Strap Basket (Table 8, item 26; Plate 66a)

(4) Miniature Racing Logs with Handles (Pàlrà-re) (Table 8, item 27; Plate 67a)

(5) Diagonal Shoulder-Armpit Sashes of Cords (Table 8, item 28; Plate 59a,e)

(6) Novice’s Carved Staff with Tines (Pepyê yõõ khô) (Table 8, item 31; Plate 64d)

(7) Cotton Bracelets with Tassels (pa-tsêê) (Table 8, item 34, Plate 60f)

(8) Occipital Hair Tie of Cotton with Cane Rod Pendants (poopok) (Table 8, item 39; Plate 61b)

(9) Fish-shaped Meat Pie Frame (tep yà?-kuupu: fish its-pie) (Table 8, item 43; Plate 67b)

(10) Life-size Body Mask (ku?khrùt-ti ?hô: water-beast large its-hair) (Table 8, item 47)

(11) Mask’s Food-spearing Stick (Table 8, item 48)

(12) Occipital Hair Adornment of Catolé Palm Frond (híwa?kèy) (Table 8, item 49)

(13) Padded Arrows (khrúwa kakot) (Table 8, item 35; Plate 63b)

(14) Padded Lances (Table 8, item 50; Plate 63a)

c. Women’s Items

(1) Belt of Tucum Cords (i?pre) (Table 8, item 19; Plate 39d)

(2) Belt of Shredded Bast (Table 8, no field number)

(3) Necklace of Many Strings of Ceramic Beads (Table 8, item 149; Plates 57b, 73c, 76g)

(4) Dorsal Head-Strap Basket of Buriti Stalk Surface Strips (khay) (Table 8, item 61)

d. Men’s Objects

(1) Wooden Staff (khô-po) (Table 8, item 9; Plate 64e)

(2)Wooden Club (khôtàà) (Table 8, item 10; Plate 63f)

(3) Small Wooden Club (khôtàà-re) (Table 8, item 10; Plate 63f)

(4) Relay Race Batons (a?khrô-re) (Table 8, item 11; Plate 64a,b)

(5) Head Bands (i?khrã-?khà or hà?khà)

(a) Little Old Cerrado Deer (poo-tsũm-re)

(b) Headband like a Calf                                   

(c) Póro

(d) Clown’s Headband (hï or hï-?ti)

(e) Older Person’s Headband

(f) Calf Headband (prùù-ti ?khrã)

(6) Round Earlobe Spools (khuy) (Table 8, item 13; Plate 62a,b,c)

(7) Wooden Earlobe Piercer (hapak katswèl tsà) (Table 8, item 55; Plates 62g, 68c)

(8) Buriti Bast Bag for First Earlobe Hole Pins (Table 8, item 56; Plate 62f)

(9) Necklaces (hõ?khre-tsêê) (Table 8, item 149; Plate 59a)

(10) Plaited Shoulder-Armpit Diagonal Sashes (hara-?pê) (Table 8, item 16; Plate 58a)

(11) Armlets (hara-khat-tsêê) (Table 8, item 17e) and Leglets (i?te-tsêê) (Table 8, item 17f)

(12) Belt with Tail of Buriti Frond Straw (tsoo-re yapúú) (Table 8, item 18; Plate 58b)

e. Musical Instruments

(1) Cattle Horn (hô?hi) (Table 8, item 20a; Plate 65c)

(2) Gourd Horn (pàtwè) (Table 8, item 20b; Plate 65d)

(3) Gourd Rattle (ku?tõy) (Table 8, item 21; Plate 65a)

(4) Gourd Whistle (ku?khõn-re) (Table 8, Item 22)

(5) Straight Wooden Whistle (ku?khõn-khrèt) (Table 8, item 23; Plate 65b)

A. Socialization and Related Adult Activities

1. Research Methods

a. Personal Observations

b. Discussions with Research Assistants

c. Canela and Apanyekra Socialization Processes

2. Foci of Socialization

a. Infant Care: by female kin group; “milk siblings”

b. Breast Feeding: on demand; for distraction, given someone’s breast

c. Feeding of Solids: no bottle feeding in 1950s, nothing forced

d. Exploration and Distracting Small Children from Dangers

e. Standing and Walking: babies helped when ready, never forced

f. Weaning: traditionally between 3 and 4 years; now, between teething and walking

(1) Principal weaning technique; tricked into eating, not done against will

(2) Pepper breast only if pregnant; a deplored backland “regular” practice

g. Talking: through imitation and repetition; in joking relationships

h. Urination: no attempt to control it, wet clothing tolerated

i. Defecation: between 2 to 4 years old, when children understand to go outside

(1) Related adult practices; alone, hidden, in the cerrado

(2) Sanitation problems in Sardinha and Escalvado

j. Sex: Important training for tradition of extramarital relations

(1) Penis Play: by mothers and classificatory wives

(2) Masturbation: forbidden; a matter for aunts and uncles to correct

(a) Loss of virginity payments (both sexes); male loss if foreskin loose

(b) Adult modesty; though naked, glans penis and inner genitalia hidden

(3) Opposite-Sex Siblings’ Sex Play: one of two most severely punished offenses

(4) Adolescent or Adult Incest: uterine siblings become crazy and die

(5) Sexual Education of Males: from joking, rafter beds, “spouses,” watching trysts

(a) Homosexuality: rare but tolerated

(b) Males’ first experience with an older classificatory spouse

(6) Sexual Education of Females: from joking uncles, from hearing rafter bed activity

(a) Learns from disciplinary aunt, who also inspects her for broken hymen

(b) Learns by group force if she is not “generous” with her other “husbands”

(c) Learns through being a girl associate, “wife” to a male group

k. Aggression Regulation: external aggression not rewarded for last 150 years

(1) Girls fighting is rare and only when very small

(2) Boys fighting is rare; second worst offense; a trial if blood is drawn

(3) Spirited willfulness of little A?prol; like earlier warrior

(4) War leaders had innate ferocity; externally directed, internal restraint

(5) Non-confrontational at foci, many outlets for frustrations

l. Eating Practices: permissive and irregular for both children and adults

m. Independence/Dependence: girls help parents, boys play in cerrado; of adults

n. Khêêtúwayê Festival: pre-pubertal boys cooperate in non-familial group

(1) Boys learn protective roles of kin against unknown and supernatural dangers

(2) Boys confined and visited by uncles who teach traditions and values

o. Ear-piercing for Boys: to listen, understand, and obey

p. Puberty: shift to uncle’s harsher discipline

q. Pepyê Festival: post-pubertal boys learn restrictions

r. Group Disciplinary Practices: to toughen and control adolescents

(1) Uncles as warriors haze nephews for food and sex infractions

(2) Apanyekra practice severe public shaming for sex during Pepyê internment

s. Traditions Lost due to Service Personnel’s Presence: uncle-nephew hazing

(1) Adolescent sex with elderly; youths with menopausal women

(2) Childless women sleeping in the plaza on opposite side from husbands

3. Forces of Socialization

a. Forces of Socialization for Children

(1) Rewarding and Motivating Forces

(a) Parents’ roles; give extra toys and food (Ta?pa); tell stories

(b) Aunts’, uncles’ roles; supply head-baskets and toys; joking, storytelling, hunting

(2) Restraining Forces

(a) Trait formation; not stingy, angry; no fighting, maligning, stealing

(b) Incessant streams of mild talk and insistent requests

(c) Distraction, trick into cooperation; to not confront and weaken will

(d) No verbal abuse used to lessen self-image, unlike backlanders

(e) Fear used to attract attention, impress, and get cooperation

(f) Ignoring the very willful; if control ineffectual, let child have it’s way

(g) Physical punishments; hitting palm of hand for extreme misbehavior

(h) Forcing medicine; acculturative change from late 1950s to 1970s

(i) Aunts and uncles hit only in extreme cases; if ignored return to parents

b. Forces of Socialization for Adolescents

(1) Restraining Forces

(a) Aunts and uncles teach sex restrictions; more detached than parents

(b) Aunts and uncles teach endurance for life roles through confrontation

(c) Attaining strength through maintaining virginity (Pààtsêt)

(d) Uncles send nephews to plaza; impose sex and food restrictions; haze

(e) Formal Friends: fear of “games” against them restrains individuals

(2) Enabling Forces

(a) Food, sex restrictions; “helping hand” to do well in most adult roles

(b) “Medicines,” Formal Friends, cross-sex siblings

(3) Rewarding Forces: public and private awards

(a) For girls

(b) For youths

c. Forces of Socialization for Adults

(1) Rewarding Forces

(a) Extramarital sex partners; general availability helps morale

(b) “Advice” from older relatives; inter-generational adult bonding

(c) Appointment of children to positions of honor brings honor to their parents

(d) Prestigious roles; few positions for highest roles, some high roles for all

(2) Enabling Forces

(a) Food and sex restrictions against pollutions by shamans and hunters

(b) Formal Friends, the most developed helping device for adults

(c) “Powers” from ghosts, hunting “vision” from “medicines”

(d) Orders for carrying out most roles is strongly felt need

(3) Restraining Forces for Adults

(a) Shame; enculturated inhibiting factor; hàmren have much shame, Clowns have little shame